加拿大联邦的历史17
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发布时间：2023-09-12 06:00
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北美洲国家。面积：约9,976,185平方千米。人口：约31,081,900(2001)。首都：渥太华。英国人和法国人后裔占该国人口半数以上，德国人、意大利人、乌克兰人、华人、荷兰人、美洲印第安人和爱斯基摩人(因努伊特人)的后裔则构成重要的少数民族。语言：英语和法语(均为官方语言)。宗教：天主教、新教(加拿大联合教会和加拿大圣公会)。货币：加拿大元。加拿大可划分为几个自然地理区：以哈得孙湾为中心占全国面积近4/5的大片内陆盆地，由加拿大地盾、内陆平原及五大湖-圣劳伦斯低地区组成。盆地边缘是几个大部为高地的区域，包括北极群岛境内的山脉，有落基山脉、海岸山脉和劳伦琴山脉。境内最高峰位于育空地区的洛根山。加拿大的5条河流——圣劳伦斯河、马更些河、育空河、弗雷泽河和纳尔逊河均居世界40条最大河流之列。除与美国共有的苏必利尔湖和休伦湖外，加拿大的大熊湖和大奴湖又属世界11个最大湖泊之列。境内也有若干岛屿，包括巴芬岛、埃尔斯米尔岛、维多利亚岛、纽芬兰岛和梅尔维尔岛以及许多小岛屿。加拿大与美国的疆界长6,415千米，是世界上最长的不设防疆界。加拿大的市场经济相当发达，主要以出口为主并与美国经济保持着紧密联系，这使它成为世界上最富有的国家之一。加拿大是议会制联邦，两院制。国家元首是英国君主，其代表为加拿大总督，*首脑为总理。最初的居民是美洲印第安人和因努伊特人。大约公元1000年古代斯堪的纳维亚的探险者就来到此地，考古发掘证实在纽芬兰有他们的遗迹。早在公元1500年，英国人、法国人、西班牙人及葡萄牙人就在纽芬兰附近海域开始渔业考察。1534年卡蒂埃首次进入圣劳伦斯湾，法国遂提出对加拿大的领土要求。1605年在新斯科舍(阿卡迪亚)建立起一个小拓居地，1608年尚普兰也曾到过魁北克。皮毛交易对早期殖民地的开拓有促进作用。为对付法国人的行动，英国于1670年成立哈得孙湾公司，英法两国为争夺上北美洲腹地相持达一个世纪之久。1713年法国人在安妮女王之战(西班牙王位继承战争)中失利，*将新斯科舍及纽芬兰割让给英国。七年战争(法英北美殖民地争夺战)导致法国人1763年被逐出北美*。美国独立战争后，加拿大人口中增加了一些从美国逃来的效忠派分子。由于到达魁北克的效忠派分子越来越多，英国遂于1791年将该殖民地分成上、下加拿大省。1841年英国将上、下加拿大省合并。加拿大人的扩张主义导致了19世纪中叶的联邦运动。1867年成立加拿大自治领，其范围包括新斯科舍、新不伦瑞克、魁北克及安大略。此举对促进加拿大的发展至关重要。联邦成立后，加拿大开始了向西扩张的时期。伴随加拿大进入20世纪的繁荣，由于英国人与法国人社区间不断发生的冲突而受到很大影响。1931年通过的《威斯敏斯特条例》，承认加拿大是不列颠的平等伙伴。由于1982年《加拿*案》获得通过，英国给予加拿大对其*的完全控制权，并切断了两国间仍然保留的法律联系。法语加拿大人的*动是一个主要问题，20世纪后半叶要求魁北克分离的运动不断发展。1992和1995年两次要求魁北克在*上有更多自治的公民投票表决都遭到拒绝，但这个问题依然没有解决。1999年加拿大成立了新的纽纳武特地区。
Canada
Country of the North America. Area: 3,849,674 sq mi (9,970,610 sq km). Population (2002 est.): 31,244,000. Capital: Ottawa. People of British and French descent constitute more than half the population; there are significant minorities of German, Italian, Ukrainian, Chinese, Dutch, American Indian, and Inuit (Eskimo) origin. Languages: English, French (both official). Religions: Roman Catholicism, Protestantism (United Church of Canada, Anglican Church of Canada). Currency: Canadian dollar. Canada may be divided into several physiographic regions. A large interior basin centred on Hudson Bay and covering nearly four-fifths of the country is composed of the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, and the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence lowlands. Rimming the basin are highland regions, including the Arctic Archipelago. Mountain ranges include the Rocky, Coast, and Laurentian mountains. Canada's highest peak is Mount Logan in Yukon Territory. Five of Canada's rivers
the St. Lawrence, Mackenzie, Yukon, Fraser, and Nelson
rank among the world's 40 largest. In addition to Lakes Superior and Huron, both shared with the U.S., Canada's Great Bear and Great Slave lakes are among the world's 11 largest lakes. The country also includes several major islands, including Baffin, Ellesmere, Victoria, Newfoundland, and Melville, and many small ones. Its border with the U.S., the longest demilitarized border in the world, extends 3,987 miles (6,415 km). With a developed market economy that is export-directed and closely linked with that of the U.S., Canada is one of the world's most prosperous countries. It is a parliamentary state with two legislative houses; its chief of state is the British monarch, whose representative is Canada's governor-general, and the head of government is the prime minister. Originally inhabited by American Indians and Inuit, Canada was visited с AD 1000 by Scandinavian explorers, whose discovery is confirmed by archaeological evidence from Newfoundland. Fishing expeditions off Newfoundland by the English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese began as early as 1500. The French claim to Canada was made in 1534 when Jacques Cartier entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A small settlement was made in Nova Scotia (Arcadia) in 1605, and by 1608 Samuel de Champlain had reached Quebec. Fur trading was the impetus behind the early colonizing efforts. In response to French activity, the English in 1670 formed the Hudson's Bay Company. The British-French rivalry for the interior of upper North America lasted almost a century. The first French loss occurred in 1713 at the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (War of the Spanish Succession), when Nova Scotia and Newfoundland were ceded to the British. The Seven Years' War (French and Indian War) resulted in France's expulsion from continental North America in 1763. After the American Revolution Canada's population was augmented by loyalists fleeing the United States, and the increasing number arriving in Quebec led the British to divide the colony into Upper and Lower Canada in 1791. The British reunited the two provinces in 1841. Canadian expansionism resulted in the confederation movement of the mid 19th century, and in 1867 the Dominion of Canada, comprising Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario, came into existence. After confederation, Canada entered a period of westward expansion. The prosperity that accompanied Canada into the 20th century was marred by continuing conflict between the English and French communities. Through the Statute of Westminster (1931), Canada was recognized as an equal partner of Great Britain. With the Canada Act of 1982, the British gave Canada total control over its constitution and severed the remaining legal connections between the two countries. French Canadian unrest continued to be a major concern, with a movement growing for Quebec separatism in the late 20th century. Referenms for more political autonomy for Quebec were rejected in 1992 and 1995, but the issue remained unresolved. In 1999 Canada formed the new territory of Nunavut.
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Main article: Canadian Confederation
In the 1860s, the British were concerned with the possibility of an American assault on Canada in the wake of the American Civil War. Britain also feared that American settlers might expand to the north, into land that was technically British but which was sparsely settled. There were also problems with raids into Canada launched by the Fenian Brotherhood, a group of Irish Americans who wanted to pressure Britain into granting independence to Ireland. Canada was already essentially a self-governing colony since the 1840s, and Britain no longer felt it was worth the expense of keeping it as a colony. Both sides would, it was felt, be better off politically and economically if Canada was independent. These factors led to the first serious discussions about real political union in Canada. However, there were internal political obstacles to overcome first. The Province of Canada had little success in keeping a stable government for any period of time; the Tories, led by John A. Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier, were constantly at odds with the "Clear Grits" led by George Brown. In 1864, the two parties decided to unite in the "Great Coalition". This was an important step towards Confederation.
"Fathers of Confederation" meet in Quebec CityMeanwhile, the colonies further east, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland, were also discussing a political union with each other. Representatives from the Province of Canada joined them at the Charlottetown Conference in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island in 1864 to discuss a union of all the colonies, and these discussions were extended into the Quebec Conference of 1864. While there was opposition in each of the colonies, only Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland decided to remain outside of the planned Confederation. In 1867, representatives of the other colonies travelled to Britain to finalize the union, which was granted by the British North America Act on July 1, 1867.
Early drafts of the BNA Act showed that Macdonald and the other Fathers of Confederation had viewed the new nation as a kingdom, calling for the official name of the country to be the "Kingdom of Canada". Though it is still considered that Canada became a "kingdom in her own right" in 1867, it was felt by the Colonial Office in the UK at the time that a name such as Kingdom of Canada was too "premature" and "pretentious."[1] Instead the term "Dominion" was adopted. In 1879, July 1 was formally established as Dominion Day to celebrate Confederation.
While the BNA Act gave Canada a high degree of autonomy within the British Empire, this autonomy extended only to internal affairs. External affairs, such as border negotiations with the United States, were still controlled from Britain.
[edit] The Red River Rebellion
Main article: Red River Rebellion
The Métis Red River Provisional GovernmentThe new country was led by Prime Minister John A. Macdonald. Under Macdonald, Canada bought Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869, and westward settlement was encouraged. However, the people who already lived there, natives and Métis, descendants of the children of natives and French Canadian fur traders, were opposed to waves of English-speaking settlers buying their lands. The Métis of the Red River settlement (near present-day Winnipeg, Manitoba), led by Louis Riel, formed a provisional government to negotiate with the Canadian government, although these negotiations quickly fell apart. Riel led the Red River Rebellion in 1869 and 1870, ring which he executed an Orangeman, causing an uproar among Protestant English Canadians. Macdonald sent a militia to put down the rebellion, which they quickly did, and Riel fled to the United States.
The Rebellion led to the creation of the province of Manitoba in 1870, with laws protecting the rights of the natives, Métis, French-speakers and English-speakers, Catholics and Protestants.
[edit] Expansion
The last spike of the Canadian Pacific Railway, Craigellachie, British Columbia, November 7, 1885In 1866, the colonies of British Columbia (formerly New Caledonia) and Vancouver's Island were united. British Columbia had been important for British control of the Pacific Ocean, and was a centre of the fur trade between Britain, the United States, Russia, Spain, and China. It did not participate in the original Confederation conferences, but agreed to join Canada in 1871 when Macdonald promised to build a transcontinental railroad across the continent through the Northwest Territories (formerly Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory), which at this time still extended to the U.S. border. The Canadian Pacific Railway and the Dominion Land Survey were begun soon after.
Canadian provinces, 1881-1886In 1873, Prince Edward Island, the Maritime colony that had opted not to join Confederation in 1867, was admitted into the country. That same year, Macdonald created the North West Mounted Police to help police the Northwest Territories, and assert Canadian independence over possible American encroachments into the sparsely populated land. The "Mounties" became legendary for keeping law and order in the west.
However, also in 1873, Macdonald and the Conservative government faced a major political crisis, when it was revealed that the Canadian Pacific Railway Company had helped fund Macdonald's election campaign in 1872. A new election was called in 1874, and Alexander Mackenzie became Prime Minister. Under Mackenzie, the Canadian Pacific Railway continued to expand to the west, but the public's suspicion of Macdonald was erased by 1878, when the Macdonald and the Conservatives were re-elected.
On March 31, 1949, Newfoundland was admitted into the Canadian confederation as the tenth province. In the provincial election following, the supporters of confederation aligned themselves with the Liberal party headed by Joseph Smallwood, and the opponents with the Progressive Conservative party. The election was a complete victory for Smallwood's party, and he thereupon became the first premier of the new province.
[edit] Macdonald's "National Policy"
Main article: National Policy
After being restored as Prime Minister, Macdonald introced the National Policy, a system of protective tariffs meant to strengthen the Canadian economy. Part of the policy was the completion of the railroad, which would allow procts to be transferred more easily across the country. It was also a response to the United States, which had a much stronger economy that threatened to overwhelm Canada; the United States had a trade reciprocity treaty with the United Province of Canada from 1854 to 1866, but abrogated the treaty before Confederation. Many people believed this policy was only beneficial to Ontario, as the Maritimes especially depended on trade with the United States. While it was somewhat beneficial for asserting Canadian independence, it was not very useful in the less instrial Maritimes and West.
[edit] The North-West Rebellion
Main article: North-West Rebellion
Métis and First Nation prisoners following the rebellion, August 1885.After the Red River Rebellion, many Métis moved west to what is now Saskatchewan. However, with the expansion of the railway, as well as increased European immigration to western Canada, they felt their way of life was once again being attacked. In 1884, Louis Riel returned from exile, and in the spring of 1885, he led the Métis and other natives against the North West Mounted Police starting the North-West Rebellion. The Mounties surrounded the Métis settlement at Batoche, and by May reinforcements of Canadian militia had arrived on the new railway. The Métis and natives were decisively defeated, and this time Riel was not to escape. In November, he was found guilty of treason and hanged, causing an uproar among French Canadians who felt English-speaking Canada was unfairly prejudiced against him. This incident caused a deeper rift between the two populations, leading to a renewed sense of French Canadian nationalism that is still felt today. However, the crisis allowed the Canadian Pacific Railway company to show its worth by quickly transporting troops west which encouraged enough political support for further funding to complete the line, thus realizing MacDonald's dream of a transcontinental railway to help strengthen the nation building.
[edit] The Manitoba Schools Question
Main article: Manitoba Schools Question
After the Red River Rebellion and the entrance of Manitoba into Confederation, settlers from English Canada arrived in the new province in greater numbers. In 1890, the provincial government passed the Manitoba Schools Act, abolishing government funding for Catholic schools and abolishing French as an official language - contrary to the Manitoba Act that created the province. This led to another federal political crisis, and by 1896, Prime Minister Mackenzie Bowell was forced to resign. Wilfrid Laurier, a Catholic from Quebec, became prime minister. Laurier developed a compromise stating that French would be used in schools when there were a significant number of French-speaking students; this compromise was denounced by both sides, but was recognized as the only possible solution. However, along with the execution of Louis Riel, the Manitoba Schools Question led to an increase of French Canadian nationalism.
[edit] Population of the West
While the National Policy, CPR and Dominion Lands Act had been in place for several decades, the population of Canada's prairie regions only got underway around 1896. Why it began then is a matter of debate among historians. John Dales argued that it was a combination of rising wheat prices, cheaper ocean transport costs, technological change, new varieties of wheat, and the scarcity of land in the United States. Norry does not view any of these developments as being important, and instead argues that new methods of dry farming lead to the breakthrough. Recently ,Ward had argued that technological change was the most important factor, with a number of different inventions becoming cheap and reliable enough to be widely used around this period. The period of western settlement was one of the most prosperous in Canadian history. From 1896 to 1911, Canada had the world's fastest growing economy. Immigration from Eastern Europe and the eastern parts of the former Austro-Hungarian empire brought many old world farmers to settle the west and despite their lack of knowledge of the English language many adapted quickly to the farming environment which was somewhat similar to their original homelands.
[edit] Klondike Gold Rush
Main article: Klondike Gold Rush
Miner's camp at the head of the Yukon RiverIn August 1896, a party led by Skookum Jim Mason discovered gold on a tributary of the Klondike River. After the discovery was publicised in 1897, an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 people braved numerous hardships to reach the Klondike gold fields in the winter and spring of 1897-98. With the influx of American stampeders, the government decided to relieve the North-West Territories' administration from the task of controlling the sudden boom of population, economic activity and influx of non-Canadians. On June 13, 1898 the Yukon became a separate territory. In 1901, after many had gone back, the Census put the population of the territory at 27,219, a figure that was not reached again until 1991. The influx of people greatly stimulated mineral exploration in other parts of the Yukon and led to two subsidiary gold rushes in Atlin, British Columbia and Nome, Alaska as well as a number of mini-rushes. Transportation needs to the gold fields led to the construction of the White Pass and Yukon Railway.
[edit] Laurier and Canada's Role in the Empire
Laurier hoped to unite French and English Canada in a unique sense of Canadian nationalism, rather than remain unquestionably loyal to Britain. Along with some Americans, he also hoped for a shift of focus towards North America, a policy often known as "continentalism." However, in 1899, the British immediately assumed Canada would send military support to the Boer War in South Africa, and there was indeed enormous support for military action from English Canada. French Canada was strongly opposed to military support for Britain's imperialist wars. The opposition was led by Henri Bourassa, who, like Laurier, preferred a united, independent Canada. Bourassa denounced Laurier when Laurier eventually decided to allow a volunteer force to fight in the war, even though the other option would have been calling up an official army.
As Prime Minister, Laurier successfully brought Saskatchewan and Alberta into Confederation in 1905, carving those provinces out of the Northwest Territories. He felt Canada was on the verge of becoming a world power, and declared that the 20th century would "belong to Canada". However, he faced even more criticism when he introced the Naval Service Bill in 1910. It was meant to make Canada less dependent on Britain and British imperialism, but Bourassa believed the British would now call on the Canadian navy whenever it was needed, just as they did with the Canadian army. Pro-British imperialists were also opposed to the attempt to remove Canada from the Empire. The Naval Service Bill led to Laurier's downfall in the election of 1911. Conservatives led by Robert Laird Borden attacked reciprocity with the United States, warning that strong economic links would weaken the Empire and allow the neighbour to increasingly take over the economy.
[edit] Turn of the century immigration dispute
The resident European community, particularly in Canada's newer provinces was growing increasingly fearful and angry about immigration. In 1886, a Head Tax was imposed on the Chinese, which reached as much as $500 per person to enter Canada by 1904. By 1923 the government passed the Chinese Immigration Act, which would prohibit all Chinese immigration until 1947. Sikhs had to face an amended Immigration Act in 1908 that required Sikhs to have $200 on arrival in Canada, and immigration would be allowed only if the passenger had arrived by continuous journey from India, which was impossible. Perhaps the most famous incident of anti-Sikh sentiment in British Columbia was in 1914 when the Komagata Maru arrived in Vancouver harbour with 376 Sikhs aboard, who were all denied entry. The Komagata Maru spent two months in harbour while the Khalsa Society went through the courts to appeal their case. The Khalsa Society also kept the passengers on the Komagata Maru alive ring those two months. When the case was lost, HMCS Rainbow, a Canadian Navy cruiser, towed the Komagata Maru out to sea while thousands of white people cheered from the seawall of Stanley Park.
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